Sources

Bibliography

This page lists the external sources cited across the site. If a page includes a quantitative benchmark, it must include a source link. Otherwise, the number is presented as an assumption.

ROI frameworks and business case methodology

• Forrester: Total Economic Impact (TEI) methodology

  A widely used approach for structuring benefits, costs, flexibility, and risk in technology business cases.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

• McKinsey: Fostering better decisions through holistic ROI estimates

  Discussion of connecting value drivers to decision making and using NPV-style thinking for investment tradeoffs.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

• Harvard Business Review: The essential components of digital transformation

  Highlights why outcomes and clarity matter, and why vague ROI narratives create execution risk.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

Finance benchmarks for close, AP, productivity

• APQC: Cycle time to perform monthly close

  Benchmark definitions and cycle-time framing for the close process. Specific benchmark values vary by dataset and may be gated.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

• IOFM: Determining the cost to process an invoice

  Methodology guidance for calculating invoice processing cost and what to include. Some details may require a subscription.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

Working capital and DSO/DPO definitions

• JPMorgan: DSO and DPO: how they can improve your cash flow

  Definitions and practical framing for receivables and payables cycle metrics and cash flow impact.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

Cost of capital and discount rate references

• Aswath Damodaran, NYU Stern: Cost of Capital by Country (short, PDF)

  Reference material for thinking about cost of capital inputs. Use a WACC that matches your company risk profile.

  Accessed 2025-12-12

• Aswath Damodaran, NYU Stern: WACC central

  Overview and related references for WACC and cost of capital estimation.

  Accessed 2025-12-12